Native American Historical Beliefs and Cultural Concepts
Applicable to Stone Structures
By Mary Gage
Copyright © 2010. Mary E. Gage. All Rights Reserved

Abstract

This article explores possible cultural links between Native American historic customs, beliefs and practices and stone structures (with features that exhibit potentially similar usage) found in the Northeastern United States. It is divided into a series of subject specific topics.

Introduction: Continuation of Ceremonies into Historic Times

When drawing potential comparisons between historical ceremonial practices and pre-contact period stone structures, the first question which must be asked, “Is this a valid comparison?” There is evidence to suggest that pre-contact period practices continued well into the historic period. It should be noted that most cultural practices change with time and outside influence and this needs to be taken into consideration in making such comparisons. The basic point of this discussion is to demonstrate that Native Americans persisted in their cultural beliefs despite the pressures from white civilization.

Zeisberger’s 1779 Account: “[The Lenape] Worship and sacrifices have obtained among them from the earliest times, being usages handed down from their ancestors. Though in the detail of ceremony there has been change, as the Indians are more divided now [1779] than at that time, worship and sacrifice have continued as practiced in the early days, for the Indians believe that they would draw all manner of disease and misfortune upon themselves if they omitted to observe the ancestral rites.” (Quoted in Harrington 1921, 116)

Harrington in his 1921 monograph on the Lenape Indians documented a wide range of ceremonies and religious practices of this tribe. He concluded his work for the following observation “… the Lenape have retained so much of their ancient beliefs and practices after three centuries of contact with civilization.” (p. 200)

The continuity of practices even within pre-contact period has been demonstrated archaeologically. In Freetown, Massachusetts a cairn within a group of one hundred ten cairns was excavated. In this exceptionally rare cairn two charcoal deposits were found.  C14 dates of 790 years ago to 875 years ago were recorded. The time difference shows the cairn and presumably the cairn group was used for 80 or more years (Mavor & Dix 1989, 72). This long term usage equates to the Lenape’s three centuries of continued ceremonial practices in historic times.

The continued use in historic times of stone cairns and “sacrifice rocks” upon which offerings of stones and tree branches were placed is well attested to. Reverent Ezra Stiles states “[1762] Mr. Williams told me that on the Road from Sandwich to Plymouth [MA] there is a large Stone or Rock in a place free of stones; and the Indians immemorially have been used, whenever & as often as they pass this large stone, to cast a Stone or piece of Wood upon it. The Stones not being plenty, pieces of Wood is most commonly used … That the Inds. Continue the custom to this day, tho’ they are a little ashamed the English should see them, & accordingly when walking with an Eng. They have made a path round at a quarter Mile’s Distance to avoid it.” Stiles also noted, “There is such heap of Stones accumulated from such a Custom of passing Indians, between New Haven & Milford about three Miles out of Milford upon the Road. Another Heap at Stockbridge by the Housatunnuck Indians” (Dexter 1916, 160-161)

There are other 17th and early 18th century accounts that recorded Native Americans using stone cairns. (Historic references webpage) A few cairn sites have been found integrated into 19th century farms (Gage & Gage 2008, 240-247).

1. Spirit Holes (i.e. Spirit Portals) – Holes in Stone Structures

Some stone chambers have intentionally built openings from the exterior of the structure to the interior of the structure. Some good examples of these openings can be found in some of the chambers at America’s Stonehenge in North Salem, NH. Similar to these openings in stone chambers are the V and U shaped notches found on the top of some standing stones. The archaeological and anthropological evidence suggests these holes and notches found in the stone structures are spirit holes (i.e. spirit portals.)

Figure 1 - Exterior to interior notch in the East-West Chamber, America’s Stonehenge

Figure 2 - Exterior to interior window in theCollapsed Chamber, America’s Stonehenge

Figure 3 – V notched Standing Stone

Figure 4 – U notched Standing Stone

Figure 5 - Ojibwa Grave Houses

Ojibwa Culture

Hole in Grave House: Figure 5 “Heathen Graves at Muncey Town with holes at end to let the spirit in and out.” (Jones 1861, 98)

Holes in Coffin: “I was present at the burial of an old pagan chief by the name of Odahmekoo, of Muncey Town. We had a coffin made for him, which was presented to his relatives; but before they placed the body in it, they bored several holes at the head, in order, as they supposed, to enable the soul [spirit] to go in and out at pleasure.” (Jones 1861, 100)

Hole in Grave House: “In the cemeteries of post-European times they substituted the grave house for wigwams, fitted them with openings like windows [suggests square or rectangular shape], and gave broad ledges [shelf] to receive the offerings of food and tobacco.” (Jenness, 1935, 105)

Narragansett of Connecticut and Iroquois of New York

Holes in Stones Associated with Graves: A thin slate slab with a two inch diameter bore hole was found in disturbed soil slightly above the remains of a Narragansett child. The slab with the hole can not be confirmed to have been belonged to the grave. However, “A similar drilled slab was found in association with Indian graves in Connecticut … so this glamorless specimen my have been significant. The Iroquois to the north often made an ‘opening through solid materials to allow souls to pass’ …” (Simmons 1970, 126-7)

Pueblo of Arizona and New Mexico

Hole in Floor of Kiva: “… there is a sacred spot consisting of a cavity [hole] called a sipapuh, through which comes the beneficent influence of the deities [spirits] ...” (Buckland, 1896. p 364 from Mendeleff on “Kiva Building,” in Smithsonian Annual Report, 1886-7, p. 117, et seq.)

Discussion

One group of Ojibwa used the round hole which functioned as a spirit portal for the spirit to go in and out. The other group used a window shaped hole that had a broad ledge (i.e. a shelf) to place the food and tobacco offering on for the spirit inside the wigwam-grave house. In the Pueblo kiva the sacred hole was used to make a connection with the spirit. These examples embody three key concepts (1) spirit portal (2) place for offerings to the spirit (2) place for people to connect to the spirit.

How do these concepts apply to the chamber openings at America’s Stonehenge? The openings and window features in some of the chambers create a physical entry from the exterior to the interior of the chamber, or in other words, a spirit portal. The bottoms of these portals are flat surfaces which would have permitted the placement of perishable offerings to the spirits. The chambers at America’s Stonehenge were not burials instead they were used for ceremonies. The shaman inside the chamber therefore could make a connection or interact with the spirit. Putting all these pieces together, these features can be interpreted as combination spirit portal & offering niche used to call a spirit into a ceremony with the shaman inside the chamber.

The V and U shape notched standing stones are similar to the openings in the chambers and in the grave houses. This similarity suggests they are spirit portals. Some standing stones are found embedded in stone walls and have their notches positioned such that the notch creates a “spirit portal” through the stone wall. These stone walls function similar to the wall of the chamber. Other standing stones are found by themselves and the notches align with other man-made or natural features. These suggest a directional spirit portal designed to direct a spirit to a specific place.

With the chambers the historical and archaeological evidence is sufficient to put forth an interpretation. With the standing stones, this evidence provides a starting point for considering the notches as a type of spirit portal. Using the other physical evidence from the site like the location of the standing stone in a stone wall or aligning to another feature, this basic concept can be expanded upon. For example, it developed the concept of a directional spirit portal. Both the chamber and standing stone examples illustrate different ways that this historical archaeological data can be successfully applied to stone structure research.

2. Underworld

The Algonkian speaking tribes along with many other tribes throughout North America viewed the universe as divided vertically into three major realms. The Upperworld consisted of the dome of the sky and starry night skies. The earth surface inhabited by people, plants, and animals was considered the Middleworld. Below the earth’s surface was the Underworld. These three worlds go by many names and some tribes further subdivide these realms.

Christianity has associated the realm of the Underworld with hell and is largely responsible for the negative view of this metaphysical world. However, the Native Americans did not have this negative view of the Underworld. Most tribes viewed the Underworld as the home of many powerful spirits. In at least modern times, the Native American has also viewed the earth itself as the “Mother Earth” the source and provider of life. The relationship between the Underworld concept and the Mother Earth concept is not fully understood but they seem to be complimentary cultural beliefs.

At stone structure sites, natural caves, underground chambers, and splits / crevices in the rock are physically within the Underworld. Caves and chambers allow people to go into the Underworld. This physical evidence all suggests that the Underworld concept was a critical component of sites with these types of features. A better understanding of the Underworld is therefore important to the study of stone structure sites.

The Underworld section is subdivided into a series of sub-topics. How these various aspects of the topic apply to stone structures and natural features will be discussed further along in this section.

Figure 6 – A natural crevice in a bedrock outcrop. The addition of a standing stone set on top of a triangular stone inside the crevice indicates this was recognized by the Native Americans as a sacred place and a portal to the Underworld.

Figure 7 – Pottie Chamber, Newton, NH. This fully subterranean chamber was built into a knoll. C-14 dating indicates this chamber was built about 800 years ago.

I. Spirits

The Native American viewed the Underworld as full of powerful spirits. Historically, the Native Americans have exhibited a certain amount of fear of the Underworld spirits. This may be due to Christian influences. It may also be due in part to some tribes believing that these spirits were responsible for drowning boaters and other natural catastrophes. This view of the Underworld is also colored by the terminology used by some early writers. They had a tendency to describe the Underworld spirits as “monsters” and “evil spirits.” The Native American’s true characterization of the Underworld is most likely a more complex thought process. These four quotations hint at this deeper level of complexity.

Menomini Culture

“All species of animals are ruled by supernatural chiefs, mostly dwelling underground, and these, with the Powers of the Underworld, show themselves on earth from time to time.” (Skinner 1921, 32)

“Old Menomini tell me that in former years those who had dreamed of various mythical monsters, such as the Underneath Panther, sometimes wove their conventionalized shapes on mats.” (Skinner, 1921, pp 241-2)

Ojibwa Culture

Oguans, an Ojibwa Indian, recounted a vision in which he traveled into and through portions of the Underworld. According to Oguans, he was joined by “my friend, one of the suns in our sky who had come to join my expedition …” Further along in their journey Oguans recalled, “I bethought me of our old traditions, that evil manidos dwell within the bowels of the earth; and I hesitated to continue.  …. My companion [the sun] attacked it while I tugged desperately at the arrows in its mate; but by the time I had recovered them our enemy, half serpent, was dead. We burned both their corpses, and traveled along the luminous road, looking for some resting place. Then we heard a voice saying ‘It is not safe for you to rest below beside the road. Come up with me.’ We climbed up, and found a very old man, who called us his grandchildren. We rested there with our grandfather, who instructed us on all the dangers that lay ahead of us at certain points …” At the end of his spiritual journey, Oguans states “The child then led us on to where human beings dwelt in happiness. My companion and the child waited behind while I pressed forward to the place where I should meet the blessed [sacred] manido.” (Jenness, 1935, 57-59)

Anthropology: “The Underwater Panther was associated with whirlpools, rough waters and other disturbances on water. The underworld was also a source of ‘medicines that could heal and prolong life’ and those persons who procured a pieced of copper from the mythical panther’s tail had an item of great healing power (Lenik and Gibbs 1999, 18)

Discussion

The brief excerpts from Oguans vision illustrate the complex understanding of the Underworld that some Native Americans had. These excerpts were chosen to illustrate several basic concepts about the Underworld. (1) The Underworld was a place where spirits dwelled. Some were evil and some were good. Some like the Underwater Panther were dangerous but also the source of powerful healing objects like copper. Oguans vision and the other quotations indicate the Underworld was the home of animal spirits, both real and mythological animals, deceased Native American people’s spirits, and other spirits like the “blessed manido.” (2) People could travel into the Underworld. According to the Menomini the Underworld spirits “show themselves on earth from time to time.”  (3) Spirits from other worlds like the Upperworld Sun Spirit could also enter into the Underworld.

How do these concepts relate to stone structures? First and foremost, it demonstrates the important role the Underworld had in the Native American spiritual worldview. It would not be surprising, and if anything, we would expect to find evidence of Underworld incorporated into some sites. Secondly, people could enter into the Underworld to interact with the spirits. Ogauns entered the Underworld in a vision. At stone structures, natural caves and underground chambers would allow a person to physically enter in the Underworld. Thirdly, Underworld spirits could travel to the surface of the earth. Although the crevices and splits in rock were too small for a person to physically enter the Underworld, they certainly could be used by the Underworld spirits to travel to the earth’s surface. This important function of crevices and splits will be elaborated on further on in this section. Finally, we learn that spirits from the Upperworld can enter the Underworld as well. Stone chambers at America’s Stonehenge, Gungywamp site, and other sites were sometimes designed to have a beam of sunlight enter into the interior of the chamber on certain solar events, like the solstices and equinoxes. When the sun beam entered the chamber, it was also entering the Underworld.

II. Tribal Origin Stories

The Algonkian speaking cultures and other tribes across North America all had tribal origin stories. These stories vary considerable in there explanations of how the earth, animals, birds, plants, and humans came into being. The Menomini Tribe and Pueblo Indians origins stories both have strong connections between the Underworld and origins of humans on earth. These stories are quite different in their details but they share this connection to the Underworld. It should be noted these stories are specific to these tribes and do not represent all tribal origin stories. However, both examples reinforce the importance of the Underworld in cultural beliefs in some Native American cultures.

Algonkian-Menomini of the Great Lakes Region: “According to the tribal origin myth, in the mystical past the Great Underground Bear and its mate came out of the earth near the mouth of the Menominee river, and there assumed human guise, becoming the tribal ancestors.” (Skinner 1921, 46)

Pueblo of Arizona and New Mexico: “In the Kivas, which may be said to represent the temples of the Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, and which are always semi-subterranean, there is a sacred spot consisting of a cavity called a sipapuh, through which comes the beneficent influence of the deities, or powers invoked. This sacred hole represents the place from which the people emerged after being fashioned in the underworld by the Creator. This cavity was, and still is the holy of holies, and around it are placed the fetishes. It was formerly covered with a stone, in which a round hole was cut, and stopped with a plug of the same material. Both the cover and plug are now made of wood, and doubtless the plug is removed when the deity has to be consulted.” (Buckland 1896, p 364 [Buckland cites Mendeleff on “Kiva Building,” in Smithsonian Annual Report, 1886-7, p. 117, et seq.])

Origins of Metal Pots: “In common with a number of other Algonkian tribes visited by the writer, the Menomini believe that the first iron and brass or copper kettles obtained by them were thrown up on the surface of the earth to sacred dreamers by the Underneath Gods. Probably this, too, is a survival of a tradition dating back to the time when kettles were made of earth [ceramic vessels], the property of the Powers Below. Be it as it may, this idea is curiously widespread among kindred tribes.” (Skinner 1921, 285-6)

Figure 8 – Enamel Cooking Pot

Figure 9 – Galvanized Metal Bucket

Figure 10 – Stoneware Jug with its bottom ceremoniously broken off.

Discussion

The ancestral tribal origin stories of the people being created by an Underworld spirit or emerging from the Underworld were reported from two places in the United States. One was the north central region of the Great Lakes and the second was from the deep southwest. These are two different Native American cultural groups from two different parts of the United States with an Underworld origin story. The Pueblo origin story is incorporated into their ceremonial structure, the semi-subterranean kiva, as a hole in the floor of the kiva known as a sipapuh. The Pueblo physically re-created one aspect of their creation story into their ceremonial structure. It is highly likely that other Native American cultures did likewise. For Menomini, the place of emergence in their story is related to a specific geographical location, “the mouth of the Menominee river.” These are two different ways that aspects of tribal stories manifest themselves in the physical world.

Stone chambers are theorized to be ceremonial structures based upon their construction partially or completely underground. They share the subterranean design concept with the kivas. With the kivas, there is clear cultural evidence that they are associated with the Underworld. This adds one more layer of evidence in support of the idea that chambers are likewise Underworld ceremonial structures.

What do metal pots have to do with Native American stone structure sites? Interesting enough, galvanized buckets, enamel pots, and more rarely stoneware jugs show up stone structure sites. In most cases, there are only a few of these artifacts. Furthermore, there is no other discarded “trash”, so the idea of a trash dump can be eliminated. These containers seem to be related to historic ceremonies which took place at these sites. The Menomini’s belief that iron and brass pots were the gift of the Underworld spirits may offer some clues to their presences at these sites. The Menomini believed that these were gifts from the Underworld but also they were the property of the Underworld spirits. The containers found at these sites were most likely used in the ceremonies and then left as ceremonial offerings for the Underworld Spirits.

III. Duality: Upperworld & Underworld

In the sub-section on Spirits, we learned that Underwater Panther Spirit was both good and evil (or more correctly dangerous). It was the source of powerful healing objects like copper, but, this spirit was responsible for natural disasters and drownings that killed people. This spirit has a dual nature. This duality applies equally to the Underworld in general. The Underworld is home to both benevolent spirits and dangerous spirits. Oguans in his vision had to fight evil spirits in his journey through the Underworld. However, he eventually reaches a grandfather spirit who bestows a blessing on him.

This duality is present at an even larger scale of Upperworld / Underworld. At this point duality becomes more a matter of cosmic balance (i.e. Yin/Yang) between two spiritual realms. The concepts of duality and balance are present in some ceremonies. It is reasonable to consider the idea that it may have played a role at some stone structure sites. The simplest example of its presence at some sites, are sites which have clear Underworld features like split stone cairns, chambers, etc along with obvious evidence of Upperworld ceremonies like solar alignments.

This topic is in need of much more research. The following two quotations illustrated how division or duality between Upperworld and Underworld were incorporated into some ceremonies.

Mita’win: “Incidentally, there occurs in the customs of the lodge one of the few traces of the old tribal dual division previously mentioned, based on the separation of the universe into halves. It is said that formerly members took their positions on one side or the other of the Medicine Dance structure according as to whether the medicine-bags they possessed were made of the skins of animals inhabiting the upper or the lower regions.” (Skinner 1921, 65)

Moieties: “There are traces of an ancient dual division of the phratries into the moieties according to the position of the gens and phratry ancestors in the upper or the nether worlds, but this seems to have been unimportant and purely ceremonial.” (Skinner 1921, 49)

IV. Going into the Underworld

Certain Native Americans were able to journey into the Underworld. This ability to enter the Underworld occurred under a number of different circumstances. It could be special power granted to a boy during a vision quest or initiation rituals, or, the spirits could carry a person off to the Underworld to protect them against a dangerous situation, or the person could travel to the underworld during a vision experience. The following three examples reinforce the complex role of the Underworld in Native American spiritual beliefs and show the diversity of circumstances during which a person could go into the Underworld.

Lenape: Initiation of Boys: “Occasionally the boys became able to fast in this way for twelve days, at the end of which time, the Lenape say, some had received such power that they were able to rise into the air, or go down into the ground [Underworld], or prophesy events a year or two ahead, with the magic aid of the supernatural being that had taken pity on them.” (Harrington 1921, 63-4)

Ojibwa of Parry Island: “… the animals (i.e., their souls [spirits]) have sometimes carried off a boy or a man to protect him from danger, or to bestow on him some blessing; but they have returned him to his people again after the lapse of several months or years. ‘One winter a moose, in the form of a big old man, carried two boys away to a land where there was no snow. It was bitokomegog, the underground world in which the moose have their village. Some time afterwards he brought the boys back to earth and restored them to their people. (Jonas King)’ “ (Jenness 1935, 24)

Ojibwa of Parry Island: Vision of Ogauns – Ogauns went up to Upperworld seeking a blessing of everlasting life. The Upperworld spirit told Ogauns to go into Underworld where he would receive this blessing. Ogauns actually feared the Underworld but accompanied by Sun spirit he found the courage to continue on his journey where he encountered both bad and good spirits. (Jenness 1935, 55-59)

V. Man-Made Holes Dug into Ground & Drilled Holes in Stone

Occasionally, stones are found at sites with drilled holes. The holes can be drilled with prehistoric stone drills creating a cone shape hole, or, drilled with historic metal drills creating a cylindrical hole. These drilled holes have characteristics which have no practical purpose. They may have a shallow depth or their placement on the boulder is not what would be expected if the intent was to split the stone. In most cases, the boulders with these unusual drilled holes are found in association with other Native American structures.

Another type of “hole” found in Native American structures are depressions in the top of cairns. These depressions are intentional features not the result of pot hunters. All of the cairns found to date with one or more depressions in them, were built on the ground. This is significant. The depressions can be viewed as depressions in the earth, or in other words, portals or entries into the Underworld.

Example: Prehistoric Drilled Hole done with a Stone Drill

In Gloucester, Massachusetts the Native Americans removed small quartz crystals from a boulder by pecking away the surrounding rock. In this boulder the Native Americans created a tiny ¼ inch cone shaped hole with a stone drill. The hole has no practical purpose related to crystal extraction.

Figure 11 – Hole drilled on boulder with a stone drill tool

Figure 12 – 19th Century Split Boulder with two oddly placed drilled holes.
This stone was part of a historic Native American ceremonial site in east Kingston NH.
 

Example: Historic Drilled Holes done with a Metal Plug Drill:

1) A cairn site in E. Kingston, New Hampshire has a split boulder (fig. 12). The boulder was split using the plug & feather method and left in place with the two halves pulled apart a little ways to create an open split. This appears to be a typical field stone split by some farmer upon initial inspection. Closer examination reveals a drilled hole on each side of one half. These holes are drilled at odd angles and serve no practical purpose in terms of field stone quarrying. Further, it is located within a stone wall enclosed area with a cairn attached to the stone wall a short distance away. There is a second natural split boulder with stone fill inside the enclosed area which indicates this area was used in historic times for a Native American ceremony.

2) A cairn site in Hopkinton, Rhode Island has an intact boulder with two short drill holes next to each other (fig. 13). The drilled holes serve no practical purpose in terms of historic quarrying methods. The boulder is in close proximity to cairns.

Figure 13 – Two closely placed holes drilled with a metal plug drill on a boulder from a cairn site in Hopkinton RI.
Photograph courtesy of xxxx

Figure 14 – Small on ground cairn at America’s Stonehenge with a well defined depression in the center.
 

Example: Cairn with Depression

This is a small on ground cairn with a clearly defined intentional depression in the center of it (fig. 14).

Holes Dug into the Ground for Offerings

Mita’win Ceremony: “The gathering of roots and herbs for medicinal use is always attended by placing tobacco in the holes from which they were dug, with a song or a prayer in honor of Earth Grandmother, whose hairs they are.” (Skinner 1921, 66)

The Harvest (Rice Harvest): “He [chief] gives a feast with prayers and a speech, saying, ‘We are going to commence to pick our rice tomorrow;’ then turning to the people, ‘We make this offering to Grandfather, the Master of Rice, who caused it to grow for our use. We give this tobacco (with these words he stops and digs a small hole and puts tobacco in it), as an offering to the Underground Powers and ask them to permit us to make the harvest. We beg for four days of good weather, and then we will leave the rest of the rice to the Thunderers for their use.’ ” (Skinner 1921, 144-145)

Holes Dug in Earth Next to Fire at the Snake Clan Feast

This quote was taken from Paul Radin’s book The Winnebago Tribe who are from Wisconsin.

“The host himself opens the door for the snakes. In front of him, next to the fireplace, he makes four holes in the ground, thus opening the door for them [4 snakes]. There he likewise places tobacco for them [snakes]. First he pours tobacco in the fire for the fire is the mediator between the people and the spirit. The fire tells the spirit the wishes of the people …” (Radin [1923] 1990, 277)

Discussion

These three quotations demonstrate that the Native Americans considered holes in the ground to be doorways or portals to the Underworld. These portals allowed the Native Americans to place offerings for specific Underworld spirits. In the Snake Clan Feast, the holes open the door for the snake spirit to communicate if not actually enter the place were the ceremony takes place. The drilled holes and depressions in the cairns may have served a similar function as doorways or portals. This idea is further supported by the holes drilled in the grave houses to allow the spirit of the deceased to pass to and from the grave.

With the depression in the cairns, the depressions were most likely portals to the Underworld and the stones in the cairn offerings for some Underworld Spirit. With the holes drilled in the boulders, the holes most likely allowed a spirit to leave or enter into the boulder in a similar manner to the grave houses. The drilled hole in the boulder with the quartz crystals may have been for the crystal spirit. The hole indicates that the extraction of quartz crystals (which were considered sacred objects) was attended by special rituals. Special rituals were a part of gathering healing plants.

Both historic period Native American sites have a pair of ceremonial drilled holes. One hole may have been an exit and the other entry hole. The use of different entry and exit portals is documented at the America’s Stonehenge site during the prehistoric period. These portals were usual some distance apart from each other. The use of closely spaced holes may be a modification that occurred in historic period. More examples are needed before this hypothesis can be confirmed.

VI. Chasms, Crevice, Hole in Stone, Cracked Rock & Split Stone Cairns

As previously discussed, the Native Americans considered holes, splits, and other openings into the ground or bedrock to be potential entry ways or portals to the Underworld. These places were many times incorporated into their rituals and tribal stories. Some of the previous quotations mentioned the placing of offerings into or near these portals. The following group of quotations expands upon this examining the rational for making the offerings.

At Native American stone structure sites, the stones placed in the cairns were offerings or prayers to the spirits. One common type of cairns found at many sites is the split stone cairn. These are splits in boulders or bedrock with the split filled with smaller stones. These splits in stones and bedrock whether natural or man-made are similar to the crevices, holes, and chasms mentioned in the quotations below. They are essentially Underworld portals. The stones placed inside the splits are offerings just like the tobacco offerings mentioned below.

Example: Split Stone Cairns: Many naturally split stones have stones placed inside the split (fig. 15). The fill stones range from a single stone wedged in the split to hundreds of small stones placed inside the split.

Figure 15 – A bedrock outcrop with two splits filled with smaller stones (Newbury, MA).

Example Split Stone & Niche: A large boulder naturally split with a niche placed next to one end. Perishable offerings placed in the niche were used to call forth a spirit from the Underworld. This feature is at the America’s Stonehenge site in North Salem, NH. (Gage 2006, 129)

Figure 16 & 17 – A split stone with a man-made niche located behind the right rear section of the split stone.
(America’s Stonehenge, North Salem, NH)

Figure 18 - Split boulder adjacent to a massive hillside cairn (Sandown, NH).

Figure 19 - Massive hillside cairn with retaining wall at bottom of hill (Sandown, NH).

Inhabited by Spirits

Split Rock Channel & Memegwesi: “At the north end of Parry sound, in what white men call Split Rock channel, there is a crag known to the Indians as Memegwesi’s crag. (“Memegwesi is a friendly manido, or rather a band or family of manidos. They may play pranks on the Indians, but never harm them.”) Some natives once set night lines there, but their trout were always stolen. At last one of the men sat up all night to watch for the thief. At dawn he saw a stone boat approaching manned by two Memegwesi, one a woman, the other bearded like a monkey. The watcher awakened his companions, and they pursued the stone boat, which turned and made for the crag. Just as the thieves reached it the woman turned around and called to the Indians ‘Now you know who stole your trout. Whenever you want calmer weather give us some tobacco, for this is our home.’ The boat and its occupants then entered the crag and disappeared; but the Indians still offer tobacco to these Memegwesi whenever they pass their home” (Manatuwaba). (Jenness 1935, 42)

Crevasse and Invisible Indians: “The ‘Little Wild Indians’ are dwarfs that do no harm, but play innumerable pranks on human beings. Though small, no larger in fact than a little child, they are immensely strong. Sometimes they shake the poles of a wigwam, or throw pebbles on its roof; or they steal a knife from a man’s side and hide it in his lodge, so that later he wonders how it came there. Often an Indian will eat and eat and still feel unsatisfied; he wonders how he can eat so much and still be hungry, for the dwarfs, unseen, are stealing the food from his dish. Occasionally you hear the reports of their guns, but cannot see either the dwarfs or their tracks. Yet Pegahmagabow once saw their tracks, like those of a tiny baby, on a muddy road on Parry Island. Certain dwarfs haunt a crevasse in a rock on French river, where they sometimes make themselves visible; if you throw them some food they disappear.

The ‘Little Wild Indians’ are the Brownies of Parry Island mythology, except that the adults believe in their existence no less than the children.” (Jenness 1935, 43)

Hole in a Rock & Manido (Manitou): “Strange phenomena that the Indians find themselves unable to explain are nearly always attributed to manidos. On French river there is a rock with a round hole about 3 feet deep in the top [a pot-hole?]. Since no man could have dug so deep a hole in the hard rock it must have been made by a manido. Perhaps a manido dwells there still. At all events Indians passing by take the precaution of leaving a little tobacco to ensure its favour and have good luck.” (Jenness 1935, 44)

Snake & Two Holes: “On Christian Island there is a small lake 5 or 6 feet deep where a huge snake haunts two large holes in a rock under the water. If any one lingers on this lake, fishing for trout, the snake causes the water around the holes to circulate and boil.  Whenever this happens the Indians flee.” (Jenness 1935, 45)

Cracked Rock & Wabskitjanamshin: “Near French river are two big rocks, round below, square on top, and with a narrow crack between them. Formerly they were one. But once a hunter named Wabskitjanamshin, who was traveling from lake Nispissing to Georian bay with many furs in his canoe, saw the rock sway from side to side and heard a voice calling ‘Wabskitjanamshin is listening to us.’

The hunter was annoyed at the remark and shot his arrow into the middle of the rock, where it caused the crack that remains to this day. He then continued down the river, but the manido that dwelt in the rock made him drift over a fall and lose all his furs. The Georgian Bay Ojibwa now call the two rocks Djiskan, ‘Conjurer’s lodge,’ and sing the words given above as a kind of refrain” (Jonas King). (Jenness, 1935, 45)

Entrance to Underworld

Chasm: (Vision of Ogauns - going into the underworld) “Some moons later I left my parents again, carrying this time a complete travelling equipment, even a small birch-bark canoe. I found the chasm securely blocked, and stared aghast at the huge, irregular granite masses in front of me, charred and discoloured where they had been shattered. ‘All hope is gone then,’ I murmured; ‘Never shall I obtain the everlasting life’; and I covered my face with my hands. But while my face was thus covered the pathway stood revealed to me, and, looking up, I searched for the mouth of the chasm by which I must enter [Underworld].” (Jenness, 1935, p57)

Discussion

The Ojibwa believed manidos (spirits) in habited splits, cracks and holes in rocks. The spirits mentioned were a snake, Invisible Little Wild Indians, a conjurer named Wabskitjanamshin, Memegwesi a friendly spirit(s) who is a trickster(s), and unknown manidos (spirits). The snake was a bad or evil spirit who churned up the lake water making it unsafe for people in boats fishing on the lake, the Little Wild Indians (dwarf people) and the Memegwesis were pranksters who did not harm people but sometimes stole people’s possessions and mislaid them or stole people’s food. To keep these spirits from causing problems, an offering was made to them. The offering could be food, tobacco, or in one case a song.

Splits and crevices were more than places to place offerings. They were also portals through which one could enter the Underworld during a vision experience. In Oguans vision he spoke of going into a chasm (a deep cleft or crack in the earth’s surface) to enter the Underworld. His purpose for going into the Underworld was to seek a blessing.

Split stones with stones placed inside the split fit comfortable into this larger tradition of leaving offerings at splits, chasms, and crevices,

VII. Caves & Stone Chambers

At the America’s Stonehenge site, the chambers were modeled after two caves within the bounds of the site. The chambers were recreations of the caves. Both the caves and chambers were used for ritual activities. Caves are physically underground and therefore a part of the Underworld. The following quotation reinforces the importance of caves in Native American spiritual beliefs. It also associates sweat lodge and medicine lodge (both covered with sand and earth) with caves. Stone chambers are the equivalent of these lodges. The only differences being the materials used to construct them and the ceremonies which took place inside of them.

Example - Stone Chambers: A chamber is a dry laid stone room above, below or partially below ground, semi-subterranean. Many of the above ground chambers are covered with an earthen mound creating an affect of being underground. Chambers are cool, damp, and darkened rooms.

The Mountain Chant is a Navajo epic related by Dr. Washington Matthews. A. W. Buckland summarizes this epic tale as follows, “In this the hero, who is to become the great medicine-man of his tribe, is led by the Owl-god (identified by Brinton with Pluto, god of the underworld) through various adventures, in several of which he is taken into caves with very narrow openings, the entrances being enlarged by the breath of his conductor; and in these caves he finds divers gods in the form of animals, who instruct him in the healing ceremonies he is to introduce among his people. In these ceremonies beads, necklaces, rock-crystal, turquoise, and alabone shell play an important part, whilst it is not without significance that both the sweathouse used for purification and the medicine-lodge are covered outside with sand and earth, so as to resemble in appearance a tumulus, …” (Buckland 1896,  364-5)

VIII. Underworld Conclusion

The Underworld was an important part of Native American spiritual beliefs across America. It was incorporated directly and indirectly into their ceremonies and rituals. It also was associated with certain geographical places like caves and chasms. Compelling evidence was presented demonstrating how the Native Americans beliefs and conceptualization of the Underworld were incorporated into ceremonial stone structure sites. Natural caves, subterranean stone chambers, split stone cairns, and certain crevices and splits in the bedrock were associated by the Native Americans with the Underworld. These places were used to hold rituals within the Underworld, communicate with Underworld spirits, make offerings and prayers to these spirits, were sacred places mentioned in tribal origins stories, and places to spiritually travel into the Underworld during the vision experience to seek the blessing of a particular spirit. A working knowledge of Native Americans beliefs related to the Underworld is critical to fully understanding many stone structure sites.

TO BE CONTINUED ...